India’s Space Journey Began in 1963 with a Sounding Rocket Launched from Thumba, Kerala, and is Now Heading Toward a Proposed Indian Space Station. New Space Technologies are Accelerating This Progress. These include Reusable Launch Vehicles, Electric, Green and Nuclear Propulsion, and In‑Orbit Servicing. Through SpaDeX, India has become the fourth country in the world to achieve autonomous docking of two spacecraft in orbit. These advances strengthen India’s self‑reliance. Meanwhile, Gaganyaan is advancing India’s human spaceflight goal.
Space Science and Its Relevance Today
India’s organized space activities began in 1962 with the establishment of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) under Dr. Vikram A. Sarabhai. The first sounding rocket was launched from Thumba, Kerala on 21 November 1963. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed on 15 August 1969, taking over the earlier INCOSPAR. It was later brought under the Department of Space in 1972.
Since its inception, ISRO has followed a development‑first philosophy for India. Its core aim was to use space technology as much as possible to solve the country’s ground problems. Over the decades, ISRO has moved far beyond a launch service provider, and its efficiency and technical excellence have earned global recognition. ISRO’s reputation rests on the simple promise that every space mission should serve the common citizen of the country.
This vision is now shaping daily life across the country. Communication satellites extend connectivity to remote and underserved areas. They support various tasks linked to Earth observation, data agriculture, disaster assessment, planning, environmental monitoring and other national needs. Weather satellites track cyclones and monsoons, providing early warnings that save lives. Fishermen, farmers and coastal communities rely on these warnings to protect their livelihoods. These systems connect citizens, safeguard communities, strengthen governance and drive inclusive, sustainable development. Beyond services, space also defends India’s borders and shapes its future. Space‑based communication systems support national security and strategic needs.
Based on these strengths, emerging technologies are opening new paths for innovation, connectivity and service delivery. Private enterprises and start‑ups are also joining this journey. This establishes India as a confident, self‑reliant and globally respected space power.
Click to read in detail: India’s Space Odyssey
Emerging Space Technologies
As India moves toward greater self‑reliance and its bold goals, a new generation of technologies is shaping this journey. These innovations span next‑generation launch systems, in‑space operations, human spaceflight, and advanced navigation and communication. They mark a shift from India’s early achievements to a future‑ready space programme. Built for future decades, these associated programmes aim to keep India competitive, connected and firmly self‑reliant.
Next‑Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV)
Access to space begins with the ability to launch. A country that can build and launch its own rockets decides when, how and at what cost to reach space. India’s launch journey has moved from small, expendable rockets to heavy‑lift vehicles, and it is now advancing toward reusable systems.
India’s Traditional Launch Vehicles
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): PSLV, ISRO’s workhorse, can carry up to 1,750 kg to a 600 km Sun‑synchronous polar orbit (SSPO) and up to 1,425 kg to a Sub‑Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (Sub‑GTO) depending on mission configuration.
GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle): It uses a domestic cryogenic upper stage and can carry communication satellites up to the 2‑ton class.
LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark‑3): This is India’s heavy‑lift launch vehicle. It can place 4‑ton class communication satellites into GTO and 10‑ton class payloads into LEO.
SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle): SSLV is a three‑stage vehicle with a lift‑off weight of ~120 t. It can launch satellites up to ~500 kg into a 500 km planar orbit.
Notably, in September 2024, India’s central cabinet approved the development of the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV). The approved ₹8,240 crore budget covers development cost, three developmental flights, required facilities, programme management and launch campaign. Designed for a 30‑ton maximum capacity to LEO, the NGLV triples India’s current launch payload capacity compared to LVM3’s 10‑ton LEO limit. Additionally, a partially developed reusable NGLV version with a 14‑ton LEO payload capacity is being pursued to ensure low‑cost access to space. Its reusability will also reduce the cost of reaching space.
The NGLV will enable both national and commercial missions. These include human spaceflight missions for the Indian Space Station, as well as interplanetary exploration between the Moon and planets. It will also launch communication and Earth‑observation satellite constellations into LEO. These missions will benefit the entire space ecosystem and boost the nation’s capability and capacity.
Understanding Key Terms
Sun‑Synchronous Orbit (SSO): An SSO is a near‑polar orbit where a satellite passes over a region at roughly the same local solar time, enabling comparable lighting conditions. The interval between successive observations of a particular site varies with the satellite and its orbit.
Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO): GTO is an elliptical intermediate orbit used to transfer a satellite to geostationary orbit (GEO). Its perigee is usually a few hundred kilometres above Earth, while its apogee is about 35,786 km above the surface. Launch vehicles typically place the satellite into GTO rather than directly into GEO. Near apogee, the satellite fires its onboard apogee motor to raise perigee and circularise the orbit. Additional manoeuvres may be needed to align the orbit with Earth’s equatorial plane. In GEO, the satellite orbits with a period matching Earth’s rotation, appearing stationary relative to the ground.
Cryogenic Upper Stage: The cryogenic upper stage is the final stage of a launch vehicle that uses cryogenic propellants to provide the high efficiency needed to place satellites into their intended orbits. ISRO’s indigenous cryogenic upper stage used on GSLV employs liquid hydrogen (LH₂) as fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidiser, both stored at very low temperatures. It replaced the earlier Russian‑supplied stage, strengthening India’s self‑reliance in advanced launch vehicle technology.
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)
RLV technologies can reduce launch cost and improve operational efficiency. Unlike traditional expendable (single‑use) launch vehicles, reusable systems are designed to recover key components for subsequent missions. Their development requires controlled atmospheric re‑entry, autonomous navigation, aerodynamic flight and precise landing. ISRO demonstrated autonomous runway‑landing technologies with its winged reusable launch vehicle demonstrator, Pushpak. Three RLV landing experiments were completed on 2 April 2023, 22 March 2024 and 23 June 2024. LEX‑03 validated autonomous landing under more challenging cross‑range and wind conditions.
Scramjet Technology: Powering India’s Reusable Space Transport
A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is an air‑breathing jet engine that carries only fuel and draws oxygen from the surrounding air. Traditional rockets carry both fuel and oxidiser. Thus a scramjet is lighter and can deliver more payload for the same lift‑off mass. It operates only within the atmosphere at very high speeds, so a booster must first accelerate it. Its speed is expressed in Mach number. Mach 1 equals the speed of sound. Anything above Mach 5 is hyper‑sonic. Scramjets can complement reusable launch vehicles by recovering and re‑flying key parts, offering a promising path to affordable space access. India flew its scramjet on 28 August 2016, reaching Mach 6, making India the fourth country to demonstrate this capability.
On 22 July 2024, ISRO conducted a separate experimental RH‑560 sounding‑rocket flight to demonstrate air‑breathing propulsion systems and assess their performance.
Domestic Space Hardware and Critical Technologies
Any space mission depends on critical technologies such as engines, thrusters, fuel and power systems. Developing these technologies domestically reduces dependence on foreign suppliers and strengthens India’s ability to build and operate spacecraft independently. ISRO is advancing indigenous propulsion technologies, including electric propulsion and alternative fuels. It is also exploring technologies for future missions. These efforts contribute to India’s long‑term goal of space self‑reliance.
A key area of progress is electric propulsion, which uses electrical energy to accelerate propellant and generate thrust. Compared to conventional chemical propulsion, it can achieve the same orbital change using far less propellant. This reduces the fuel carried by a satellite and frees mass for communication equipment and other payloads. On 27 March 2025, ISRO successfully completed a 1,000‑hour life test of its indigenous 300 mN stationary plasma thruster. Its specific impulse, a measure of propulsion efficiency, is at least six times greater than conventional systems. ISRO plans to validate the technology on its Technology Demonstration Satellite (TDS‑01), aiming to support future electric‑propulsion satellites for orbit raising and station‑keeping.
With electric propulsion, ISRO is developing alternative propellants to reduce environmental impact and improve propulsion efficiency, i.e. green propulsion. One example is ISROSENE, a rocket‑grade kerosene. Liquid oxygen‑kerosene propellants are being developed for semi‑cryogenic rocket‑engine applications.
Progress in green propulsion extends beyond ISRO’s own programmes. Under DRDO’s Technology Development Fund, Bellatrix Aerospace in Bengaluru developed a 1 N‑class green monopropellant thruster for micro‑satellite attitude control and orbit‑keeping. Its in‑orbit performance was demonstrated on a payload launched on PSLV‑C58 in January 2024.
These events illustrate India’s progress in indigenous electric and green propulsion technologies. Continuous testing and validation will determine their readiness for widespread use in future space missions.
Radioisotope Heating and Power Technologies
ISRO and the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) collaborate on Radioisotope Heater Units (RHUs), which supply heat, and Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs), which convert radioisotope heat into electrical power. ISRO is working with DAE on RHU and RTG requirements for potential future Chandrayaan and Mars missions.
In‑Space Operations and Human Spaceflight
In‑space operations are activities performed by a spacecraft after reaching orbit, such as rendezvous, docking and undocking. Launching a satellite is only the first step: complex missions like a space station, crewed flight or lunar sample return depend on what a spacecraft can do after launch. In‑space docking technology becomes necessary when multiple rocket launches are required to achieve mission objectives, and it underpins ambitions like lunar sample return and the construction and operation of the Indian Space Station.
ISRO’s SpaDeX mission docked two satellites on 16 January 2025 and later demonstrated undocking. On 20 April 2025, it completed a second docking with full autonomy at a 15‑metre inter‑satellite distance. Bidirectional power transfer between the docked satellites was demonstrated on 21 April 2025. Thus India became the fourth country after the United States, Russia and China to demonstrate space docking. This achievement also advances the technologies needed for future missions.
Next‑Generation Navigation and Communication
Satellite navigation and communication systems support essential services across India. Navigation satellites provide positioning, navigation and timing information, while communication satellites relay television, telephone, broadband and other data signals. Together, they support transport, finance, telecommunications, disaster management and national security. India is strengthening these capabilities through ISRO’s indigenous NavIC navigation system and communication satellites.
NavIC, India’s independent regional satellite navigation system, is developed and maintained by ISRO. It provides positioning, navigation and timing services across India and up to 1,500 km beyond the mainland. It offers a standard positioning service for civilians and an encrypted restricted service for authorised users. These capabilities support land, air and sea navigation, surveying, vehicle tracking and precise time. NavIC also supports emergency warning messages for fishermen operating beyond the terrestrial network. Integration into compatible devices and applications can further extend its use in civilian and strategic domains.
Additionally, India’s communication satellites support broadcasting, broadband connectivity and secure communications. GSAT‑24, launched on 23 June 2022 at 03:20 IST (22 June local time) from Kourou, French Guiana on an Ariane‑5, was deployed to meet India’s direct‑to‑home television needs. On 19 November 2024, GSAT‑N2 (GSAT‑20) was launched. This high‑throughput satellite has a capacity of about 48 Gbps and is designed to support broadband and in‑flight connectivity across remote islands and all of India.
Communication satellites also meet India’s defence needs. CMS‑03, also known as GSAT‑7R, was launched on 2 November 2025. It is a dedicated communication satellite for the Indian Navy. These satellites strengthen India’s space‑based communication infrastructure and support civilian contact, maritime operations and national security.
Advanced Earth Observation Satellites
Earth‑observation satellites monitor land, oceans, ice‑covered areas and the atmosphere from space. Their data aid the country’s agriculture, disaster management, water‑resource planning, climate research and national security. Between December 2020 and December 2025, ISRO launched 22 satellites, including seven Earth‑observation satellites. These satellites provide images and data that monitor natural resources, track environmental changes and support informed planning. India continues to enhance these capabilities through advanced technologies such as radar imaging and hyperspectral observation.
A major advance in Earth observation is the NASA‑ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission. It was launched on 30 July 2025 from Shriharikota on GSLV‑F16. It is the first satellite mission to use two radar frequencies simultaneously: NASA’s L‑band and ISRO’s S‑band. The radar can collect data through clouds and darkness, enabling observation in all weather conditions. NISAR is designed to monitor Earth’s land and ice‑covered surfaces every 12 days. Its data help scientists monitor ground deformation, glacier movement, vegetation change, soil moisture and natural hazards. These observations also support coastal monitoring and disaster response.
Radar reveals surface changes, while hyperspectral imaging identifies different materials and surface characteristics. ISRO launched the hyperspectral imaging satellite HysIS on 29 November 2018. It observes the Earth’s surface in visible, near‑infrared and short‑wave‑infrared wavelengths. By recording information in many narrow bands, HysIS can distinguish features that ordinary imaging cannot. Its data support agriculture, forestry, soil and geological studies, coastal areas and inland water applications.
Did you know? HysIS was launched with 30 foreign satellites from eight countries. It included one micro‑satellite and 29 nano‑satellites. Participating countries were Australia, Canada, Colombia, Finland, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Spain and the United States. Twenty‑three of the satellites were from the United States. This launch demonstrated PSLV’s ability to deploy multiple satellites simultaneously for international customers.
The Road Ahead: Building a $44 Billion Space Economy
India’s space sector is rapidly contributing to scientific and strategic goals, as well as economic growth, private investment and industrial capacity. According to the Department of Space, India’s space economy is projected to reach $44 billion by 2033. Emerging technologies such as reusable launch vehicles, air‑breathing propulsion, electric propulsion and in‑space docking will help reach this target.
This technological momentum already creates many economic opportunities in the country. NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) has signed 118 technology‑transfer agreements to hand over 83 ISRO technologies to Indian industry. As a result, investor confidence is growing. Cumulative investment in Indian space start‑ups reached about $618.5 million by 31 March 2026. This investment will multiply the business further.
These events show that India’s emerging space technologies are not only advancing national capability but also building a strong, venture‑led space economy for the coming years.
References:
Department of Space
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